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Science and Society: Issues in Biodiversity

Science and Society: Issues in Biodiversity


Abstract

The major issues concerning biodiversity are delineated in the present study. The scientists have contributed to the enhancement of knowledge base concerning the need for preservation of global biodiversity. There is no consensus regarding the main causes for biodiversity degradation. The scientists complain that their works have not been reflected at the social level due to bias among the public, the role of media, and the government policy. Although a few biodiversity preservation initiatives have been noticed, they are not sufficient to restore or protect biodiversity. Therefore, at the social level there is need for more effort in order to protect biodiversity.


Introduction

Issues concerning biodiversity have become important in the modern world. This is due to the fact that in the recent years, due to scientific studies, there has been awareness concerning the need to conserve ecology. Various principles of ecology have been applied in an attempt to avoid extinction of plants and animals so that biodiversity is protected. Many institutions and individuals, influenced by scientific studies, have understood the relationship between biodiversity and climate, resources and need for conservation of ecology. This paper will begin with information pertaining to recent trends in scientific study of biodiversity. The paper will also analyze the application of empirical data, at the social level, while attempting to preserve biodiversity.


Purpose

The main purpose of the study is to analyze the relationship between scientific studies and the real work that is being done in order to protect biodiversity. The paper will argue that scientists have contributed to the enhancement of knowledge concerning the need to preserve biodiversity. In spite of large numbers of scientific studies, the recommendations of scientists have not been implemented by environmental organizations and the government agencies.


Methods

The study is based on the survey and analysis of literature that dealt with scientific studies with a view to analyze the relationship between biodiversity and climate and resources. After analyzing the empirical data, the study attempted to analyze the impact of empirical studies on actual work of protecting biodiversity.


Results

Biodiversity issue has a history covering the period of nearly 100 years. The 19th and early 20th century studies have covered the long periods and large areas having species settlements. Until 1960s, the scholars did not discuss the patterns of diversity. In 1970s, it was realized that interaction between species can result in the exclusion of some species due to their competition with other species. Microcosm studies have been able to provide new insights concerning the diversity patterns. The studies showed that species exhibited the ability to attack populations and resulted in limited membership of a specie community. Attempt has been made by the researchers to identify local determinants of biodiversity. Local determinant theory of biodiversity argues that local physical environment influences the pattern of specie development in a region. In the recent years, 'spatial considerations' have been used in order to analyze the interaction between various species. There has been development of biodiversity concepts and theories such as supply side ecology, landscape ecology, and macro ecology. (Ricklefs, 2004, p. 4)
The survey of literature shows that large numbers of studies have emerged in the field of biodiversity. These studies have been able to scientifically prove that there is a need to preserve biodiversity of the world.

It is important to scientifically record and analyze the data pertaining to biodiversity of any region due to the increasing threat to biodiversity in the form of deforestation and other developments. The current scientific approaches to the problem of conserving biological resources suffer from a few limitations. The latest technology is not available to all sections of the society. The existing inventories are not completely reliable because they do not give perfect data concerning biodiversity of a region. In order to make technology accessible to all members of society and remove limitations found in existing inventories, a new technology has been prepared. Advancement Geographical Information System and Remote Sensing can be used to properly document the biodiversity of a region in order to conserve ecological resources. The scientists working in the forests of India have developed Biogeographical Information System in order to accurately map the ecological resources. The scientists have showed their concern regarding the need to invent new technology in order to assist the community in preserving the ecological resources of the region. This technology is useful in preparing maps, atlases, and figures relating to biodiversity of a region. Based on this technology, it is possible to convincingly prove the need for conservation of ecological resources. (Neelakandan et.al., 2006)

Biodiversity includes all living organisms belonging to various sources such as terrestrial, marine, aquatic, and ecological resources. (Armsworth et.al, 2004, p. 116) Biodiversity can be studied at levels such as species level and community level. The first category studies number of species and balance of the species in a particular region. The community level studies the species found in various communities. (Armsworth et.al, 2004, p. 116-117) Biodiversity is threatened due to various aspects such as conversion, degradation, harvesting, climate change, and exotic species. Conversion of wild land into agricultural land can threaten biodiversity. Deliberate introduction of a new species can also harm biodiversity of a region. The various factors of biodiversity threat indicate that man has played an important role in destabilizing biodiversity and there is a need to conserve ecology. (Armsworth et.al, 2004, pp. 118-119)

Scientific studies on biodiversity have used analysis of quantitative data through static pattern, dynamic process, spatial variation, temporal variation, and individual variation. (Armsworth et.al, 2004, pp. 119-120) Biodiversity can be protected by convincing the people and the government that there are social and economic benefits of conserving ecological balance. An important concept of biodiversity is social objective theory which argues that members in the society have moral obligation to preserve ecology. This principle can be noticed in a few legislations passed by the United States government. Another concept of biodiversity is that it involves social cost and it is imperative that the people are convinced regarding the cost and benefits of conserving ecology. (Armsworth et.al, 2004, pp. 125-126) Scientists have identified various ecological conservation tactics such as use of protected reserves, restoration projects, zoo parks, aquaria, and germplasm banks. (Armsworth, et.al, 2004, p. 130)

Research has highlighted that in the future limited ecological resources would not be sufficient to sustain the increasing world population. This revelation has resulted in the development of "the science of ecosystem services" which aims to preserve the ecology by maintaining close contact between science and society. (Palmer, et.al, 2004, p. 1251) It has been rightly suggested that: "Without greater public understanding of the links between ecosystems and human welfare, science will be of little use". (Palmer et.al, 2004, p. 1252)

The scientists need to convince the people that it is not possible to provide them with clean water and ecological benefits without introducing significant changes in the pattern of land use. Isolated scientific investigation has been criticized. There is a need to design ecosystems by establishing close relations between ecological principles and technology. (Palmer et.al. 2004, p. 1252) The scientists need to identify practical future-oriented designed ecosystems in order to conserve ecology. (Palmer et.al, 2004)
Extinction has become an important ecological topic discussed by large numbers of scientists. Traditionally scientists believed that extinction occur due to habitat loss and fragmentation. This view has been challenged by a recent research which suggested that by 2050 nearly 15-37 percent of species would become extinct due to climate change. (Lewis, 2005, p. 166) The study has highlighted the relationship between climate and ecology. The species-area relationship approach (SAR), used by these scientists to come to this conclusion, suffers from a few limitations. This study shows that apart from habitation strategies, it is also important to monitor climatic change in order to assess the future trends in ecology. (Lewis, 2005, p. 166)

There is close relationship between poverty alleviation measures and biodiversity. Biodiversity investments can provide jobs to the people, particularly in developing countries of Africa and Asia. The United Nations poverty alleviation programs have been criticized because they have not considered the importance of biodiversity measures. It has been realized that along with economic development, it is also important to protect the ecology. A few UNO programs such as hunger reduction measures have emphasized the relationship between reducing hunger and efficiently managing the natural resources. Many drugs of the world have been produced from wild food products. Scientific studies in medicine have been implemented through various UN programs. (Roe and Elliott, 2004)
Scientists have analyzed the hypotheses that "reduction in biological diversity…will cause a reduction in eco system-level processes". (Srivastava and Vellend, 2005, p. 267). There is evidence to suggest that biodiversity can affect eco system, particularly in the case of small spatial scales, although in the case of large spatial scales there is need for more evidences in order to prove this hypothesis. The study shows that it is important to conserve biodiversity in order to maintain the balance in eco system-level processes. Eco system functions or eco system services including various species can contribute to the progress of human life. The study of eco system is an important ecological principle that is analyzed by scientists. The scientific studies have tried to convince the general public that there is a need preserve biodiversity. (Srivastava and Vellend, 2005)

After the emergence of Internet, information concerning biodiversity is available from natural history collections. Such collections can be used to analyze ecological concepts and apply them in conserving biodiversity. There are limitations in the use of information obtained from natural history collections. By overcoming these limitations, it is possible to use ecological concepts in order to conserve biodiversity. Scientists have integrated natural history collections data with results of the studies in disciplines such as "comparative genomics and phylogenetics". (Graham et.al., 2004, p. 497) The scientists have realized the need to make data free from errors so that they can be used in the study of specimens, important to invent ways of protecting biodiversity. (Grahman et.al, 2004)
World fish population has been threatened due to defective ecosystem. This is due to the fact that effective fisheries management techniques have not been employed. Most of these tactics have concentrated on a particular species. This strategy is expensive and does not protect other species of fish. Therefore, there is a need to implement 'Ecosystem based fishery management' also called (EBFM). This strategy has been helpful in avoiding degradation of fisheries. There is a need for transition from single species-based fisheries program to integrated ecosystem fishery management program. Protection of fish is important because it is linked to the protection, destruction, and growth of various other species. (Pikitch et.al, 2004)

Awareness concerning the need to protect ecology has resulted in the emergence of the 'deep ecology' movement, which has used various philosophical traditions that suggested that there is a need to conserve biodiversity. Religious principles belonging to Buddhism, Taoism, and Christianity have influenced this movement. The deep ecology movement believes in various principles. For example, biodiversity can contribute to the welfare of plants, animals, and human beings. Another principle of ecological preservation is that man does not possess any right to destroy ecology because he has not created various species found on earth. Therefore, it is the duty of every human being to see that ecological balance is preserved. In the present context, there has been too much human interference in the ecology, thereby resulting in ecological degradation. (Naess, 2005) Based on these principles, it is suggested that appropriate policies that influence the society and the economy should be introduced. The participants of deep ecology movement have replaced the word biosphere with ecosphere to include not only living beings but also non living objects such as mountains, rivers, and rocks. The members of this movement also realize the fact that species can enrich the lives of human beings. (Naess, 2005)

Many countries of the world have realized that biodiversity has been fast declining in various parts of the world. In 2002, it was decided by an EU initiative that by 2010 there should be drastic reduction in biodiversity degradation. It is important to measure decline or rise in biodiversity. It is also imperative that causes of biodiversity are identified in order to initiate appropriate measures to fight against such factors leading to decline of biodiversity. (Hanski, 2005)

Measurement of biodiversity is the task of the scientists whereas implementing measures to avoid biodiversity degradation is the work of the environmental activists and the government. The government has benefited from the use of measurement indices such as Living Planet Index (LPI), which has showed that during the period 1970 to 2000, LPI declined by 30 percent. LPI has developed three indices for terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species. (Hanski, 2005, p. 388) Many scientists have accepted that biodiversity has been negatively affected in different parts of the world. Nearly 24 and 12 percent of global mammal and bird population have reached the stage of extinction. (Hanski, 2005, p. 389) It has been suggested that "The current rate of species extinctions on Earth is 100 to 1,000 times greater than the natural rate". ((Hanski, 2005, p. 389)

In spite of realization among the scientific community that in the last 50 or 100 years there has been extinction of large numbers of species, popular response has been discouraging. This is due to the fact that scientific community has failed to convince the people concerning the dangers of loss of large numbers of plants and animals. The media, including nature serials, has highlighted spectacular nature scenes. This has reduced the importance of protecting seemingly insignificant species. (Hanski, 2005, p. 391) There is a need to preserve ordinary biodiversity, apart from extraordinary species. (Hanski, 2005, p. 391)

Many scientists have worked on the processes of habitat loss and habitat fragmentation. Different methods of measuring habitat fragmentation have been employed. Many researchers have measured fragmentation in patch scale, while only a few researchers have used landscape scale. Large numbers of researchers have not distinguished between the data concerning habitat loss and habitat fragmentation. (Fahrig, 2003, p. 487) There is a need to differentiate between the two and study them independently in order to properly measure the impact of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. The study showed that there are some limitations in the current habitat fragmentation research. (Fahrig, 2003)

Although scientific community has been researching on the impact of factors such as climate change on biodiversity, the results of such research are misinterpreted in the media. This shows clash of interest between environmentalists and anti environmentalists who take the support of media in order to divert the attention of the public from the important issue of conserving ecology. Consequently, the scientists have failed to approach the masses with the results of their research. Scientific data has been used by both environmentalists as well as anti environmentalists supported by business organizations, which try to protect their business interest by patronizing organizations that question the validity of research that point to the negative impact of climate change on biodiversity. The media has been accused of 'sensationalizing' rather dry scientific reports in order to obtain the attention of the readers or media consumers. In the enthusiasm to attract public attention, media has misrepresented the scientific studies, thereby affecting the real value of scientific research concerning biodiversity. (Ladle et.al, 2005)

Although many scientific works have proved that many species had either become extinct or reached the stage of extinction, the government and the public find that it is not possible to protect all species that contribute to biodiversity. Therefore, the government agencies have decided to give priority to 'hot spot' species. The scientists have been asked to prepare a list of species that are under the immediate threat of becoming extinct and those species that are most important to biodiversity when compared to other species. This shows that it is not possible to conserve all aspects of the current ecology. (Myers et.al, 2000)


Discussion

It is true that the scientists have been able to convince the government and the public pertaining to the need to protect biodiversity. Despite this achievement, the scientific community, due to various internal and external hindrances, has not succeeded in encouraging the government and the public to implement the recommendations. For example, the use of complex technology and measurement techniques have made it difficult for the general public to understand the scientific concepts and the methods of protecting species.

The study has proved two main aims of the study:
Aim 1 – Scientists have contributed to enhancement of knowledge concerning the need to and the methods of conserving biodiversity.
Aim 2 – Scientific studies have not been translated at the social level due to government policy, media, and bias among the public.

Beginning from the early years of 20th century, there has been considerable advancement in the filed of biodiversity. Initially, the scientists concentrated on large scale studies that analyzed long periods covering large areas and species. After 1970s, it has been realized that there is a need to study local diversities. This has resulted in the rise of number of micro studies.

There is no consensus among the scientists regarding the method of measuring biodiversity degradation and causes of biodiversity degradation. (Neelakandan et.al, 2006) There is an ongoing debate among scholars regarding the causes of biodiversity decline. (Lewis, 2005) While some scholars aver that biodiversity declines due to habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, and deforestation, other scholars suggest that climate change is the major reason for negative impact on ecology. (Lewis, 2005)

The scientists have realized that there is a need for new technology in order to make techniques of preserving biodiversity popular. A few technologies are not accessible to the people who would like to implement scientific principles in the field of ecology. Some scientists are not happy with the fact that habitation pattern and fragmentation are not differentiated. (Fahrig, 2003)

The scientists believe that there is a need to use different methodology in order to understand the real implication of fragmentation with reference to resources. The fact that biodiversity degradation has impact on environment, climate, ecology, and resources is accepted by large numbers of scholars – both scientists as well as activists. It is realized that during the last 50 to 100 years there has been phenomenal destruction of species. (Hanski, 2005) This unprecedented number has stunned the scientific community. It is expected that in the future this trend would continue. It is true that the government has realized the need to implement policies that safeguards biodiversity. This has resulted in the emergence of several reserves and natural parks. At the same time, ordinary habitat has been neglected. It is also important to protect seemingly insignificant elements that are found in the neighborhood of the individuals. (Hanski, 2005)

At the social level, the studies show that, there is a need for further awareness concerning biodiversity issues. For example, the nature documentaries and films have given too much importance to major forests and animals, ignoring the importance of protecting small species which are not visible. (Hanski, 2005) Therefore, scientific studies should aim to convince the people regarding the need to protect even ordinary species. Many scientific studies have been used to introduce new methods of protecting nature. For example, ecosystem based fishery management has been successful in halting the process of degradation of fisheries. The importance of eco systems to biodiversity has been realized. (Srivastava and Vellend, 2005)

Deep ecology movement is based not on scientific principles but on religious principles. (Naess, 2005) This shows the failure of science to impress upon the social groups to implement ecological principles in order to preserve biodiversity. The scientists are not happy with the application of scientific aspects at the social level. The government has been trying to protect only a few species due to financial reason. The argument that nothing much is done to protect environment can be refuted by referring to the EU decision to reduce biodiversity degradation by 2010. (Hanski, 2005) This resolution does not mean that the government organizations would be able to halt the process of destruction of biodiversity. The media has not supported the scientific community as there is misrepresentation of scientific facts. There is bias or prejudice among the public that only a few species need to be preserved.


Conclusions and Recommendations

The study has showed that tremendous research has been done in the field of biodiversity. The scientific communities have been able to cull sufficient data to show that many species are threatened and there is a need to protect the species. At the social level, there has been discouraging response when compared to scientific work. It is true that there is general awareness regarding biodiversity conservation, but major attention is given to spectacular species rather than ordinary species found in the neighborhood. Ordinary citizens have failed participate in the effort to protect ecology. The government has been following the policy of protecting only a few species due to financial limitations. The attitude of media has not helped scientific research.

Based on the above conclusion, one can present a few recommendations. The scientific community needs to streamline and synthesize the results of past research and provide future directions. There is a need to present the results of the research in a simple language and method so that media is not able to distort such researches and be able to give true picture to the people. There is need for regular meeting and coordination between the science and society. The scientific community needs to actively involve in the work of biodiversity conservation. The government needs to change its policy towards all species that are prone to extinction. The public also needs to sympathize with the work of the scientists and should make earnest attempt to encourage the scientists to find ways of minimizing negative consequences of biodiversity degradation on the society and economy.








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Posted by: SANDBERG FAITH SMITH

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