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Ottoman Influence on the Outcome of the First World War

Ottoman influence on the outcome of the First World War


Introduction

The Ottoman Empire, before the emergence of European powers such as England and France, played an important role in the political developments of various regions including Middle East and Eastern Europe. The English and the French began to compete with the Ottomans for economic and political sovereignty. This conflict can be seen in the various issues such as Balkan question and involvement of European powers in Eastern Europe, leading to the emergence of hostility between Europeans on one hand and Ottomans on the others, eventually leading to domination of Ottoman Empire politically and economically by the European powers. These pre First World War developments determined the attitude of Ottomans toward the newly emerging Europeans powers like Germans, who expressed their desire to give competition to the English and French – two important colonial powers. By taking the side of Germans, Ottoman Empire tried to protect its interest as the English and French had completely destroyed earlier political and economic powers of Ottomans in the region.

Ottoman support to Germans was crucial in the First World War as the Germans were able to justify their intervention in the regions controlled by other European powers. Eventually, however, Ottomans failed to realize their dream of establishing their domination in the region.

The Allied Powers, after the cessation of hostilities, decided to divide the Ottoman provinces among themselves, resulting in the creation of new states such as Iraq. These details clearly indicate that Ottomans played an important role during the First World War, although the end result of this war did not benefit the Ottomans.


Ottomans and the First World War

Participation of the Ottomans in the World War was extremely important for the Germans as apart from Austria-Hungary, Germans did not have a faithful ally. Italy, another ally of Germany, had already entered into secret treaty with France. According to this treaty, Italy promised France that it would remain neutral if the Germans attacked Italy. This had forced Germans to seek the assistance of Ottoman Turks. The Germans faced the threat of attack by their enemies from different parts. In such a situation, support given by Ottomans was very crucial for the Germans. (Erickson)

The participation of Ottomans in the war slightly tilted the balance toward Germans, although Turks were not very powerful force during those days. Due to the developments in the 19th century, Ottomans were forced to seek the assistance of Germans. Since the Balkan wars, from the days of establishment of European control over Eastern Europe, Turks had depended on the assistance provided by Germans, who had given advice to the Turks in modernizing their army. (Erickson)

Initially, Turks were not very keen to participate in the Great War. The main reason for this reluctance was the weak army of the Ottomans who lacked men and other resources required to emerge as important power in the region. It was due to the pressure put by the Germans that Turks were compelled to participate in this war against the power of England and France. (Erickson)

The Balkan war of 1912-13 had completely destroyed the Turkish army. There was need for immediate attention in order to reconstruct the army. Therefore, the period between 1913 and 1914 is considered as a period of reconstruction when attempt was made by the Ottoman administration to obtain large numbers of able bodied men in order to rebuild the army. These efforts resulted in the recruitment of large number of soldiers, mainly due to military conscription as all able bodied men were expected to support war efforts of the Ottomans. This resulted in the reconstruction of the Ottoman forces. (Erickson)

The Ottomans were also given great support by the Germans. This support eventually compelled the Ottomans to support the Germans in the war. However, even this reconstructed army was not strong. When hostilities between Germans and their enemies emerged, the Ottoman army was sent to fight against the Russians. Although Ottomans lost large number of soldiers, the army continued to resist their enemies till the end of the war. This can be considered as an important achievement of the Ottoman soldiers, although eventually Ottomans could not save their empire. (Erickson) These details show that initially Turkey was not inclined to participate in the Great War, particularly due to the condition of its army. However, for Germany, it was extremely crucial that Ottomans entered the war against the major Europeans powers. This decision of Ottomans to enter the war maintained the balance of power between the two groups. This increased hostility between Germans and their enemies in Europe and other parts of the world including Middle East. (Joll)

The attitude of Great Britain towards Ottoman Empire was also partially responsible for the participation of Ottomans in the war. The Ottomans mistrusted the English, particularly because Great Britain had occupied Egypt in 1882. Egypt was an important province of the Ottomans; the loss of Egypt to English largely affected the pride of Ottomans. The English seem to satisfy the French and Italians at the expense of Ottomans as there was possibility of division of Ottoman Empire and the distribution of these provinces among the allies of English. This enraged the Ottoman officials, although initially the Unionists, an important Ottoman political group, were not inclined to participate in the war. In the meantime, British and the French had agreed, in principle, to divide Ottoman Empire. (Karpat)

The Ottoman leader Cemal Pasa had tried to negotiate with the Europeans so that it was possible to obtain their support in protecting the integrity of the Ottoman state. However, this effort of Pasa failed as he could not obtain positive signals from the European authorities. In the end, Ottomans decided to enter the war due to German pressure exerted on the Unionists. It was decided by Admiral Souchon to bombard Russian ports. Many unionist leaders, except a few, were not aware of this plan to attack Russian ports. (Karpat)

Many Ottoman officials such as Kazim Karabekir and Hafiz Hakki were against the entry of Ottomans into the war as they wanted to wait for a few months in order to rebuild the army. If the Ottomans had postponed their decision to enter the war by six months, the Turks would not have entered the war as by then the Germans would have lost in many of their wars. The German attack on France was countered by the aggression by the enemies of Germany. This showed that there was little hope of Germany obtaining victory in this war. In spite of this, Germany exerted pressure on the Unionist leader Enver Pasa who agreed that Ottomans would participate in this war. (Karpat)

The above decision was taken by Pasa because he hoped of a German victory in the war. Pasa was convinced by the German officials that Ottoman support to the Germans would result in the victory of the Germans in the war. Consequently, the elite politicians took hasty decision to support German war effort, although there was no discussion in the parliament concerning this important decision. This adversely affected the outcome of the First World War, as it led to disturbances in Russia due to the attack of Russia by Germany and Turkish forces, leading to the Bolshevik revolution, which later resulted in the famous Russian Revolution of 1917, resulting in significant changes in the world polity and economy. The Turkish participation in the First World War also increased the intensity level, leading to greater hostility between Ottomans and the Russians. (Karpat)
The Ottomans, by joining the Germans, hoped of obtaining the territories that were lost during the Balkan wars. This shows that Ottomans were pressured by the Germans to enter into alliance with the latter and support them in their endeavor to defeat other Europeans such as Great Britain and France. The Ottoman entry into war prolonged the war for two more years. This indicates that Ottomans played an important role in the First World War by supporting the Germans. The Russian Revolution of 1917 had a profound impact on world history and the Republic of Turkey. Ottoman participation in this war had long lasting impact on the world politics leading to significant developments such as increased intensity in the hostility between Germans and other European powers that competed to control world politics. (Karpat)

Previously in this paper, it has been mentioned that due to attempt of the British and the French to capture Ottoman territories, the Ottoman administrators were forced to seek the help of the Germans, leading to the emergence of German presence in the Ottoman army and aspects related to administration, thereby resulting in increased hostility between the British and the Ottoman authorities. The British were threatened by the friendship of Ottomans with the Germans.

The British had strategic interest in the regions such as Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean; therefore the British were sensitive to the developments that they noticed in Anatolia and Arabia – two important provinces of the Ottoman Empire. (Joll)

The Germans sent a senior military officer, General Liman von Sanders to the Ottoman Empire in order to advice the Ottoman army. This enraged the British senior officials who stated that the main reason for the decline and disintegration of the Ottoman Empire was the alliance between the Ottomans and the Germans, as this strategy of the Ottomans had forced the British to take an opposite stand, thereby resulting in confrontation between the Ottomans and the British. (Gilbert)

The British had already controlled some of the remote parts of the Ottoman Empire. By giving continuous threat of retaliation, the British were able to protect their interest in some of the Ottoman oil fields that were controlled by the British. (Gilbert)
Many political leaders realized that British possessed better naval force than those of Ottomans and Germans. This suggested that British navy would be able to assist the Allies to capture Constantinople. This would mean the destruction of the earlier authority exercised by the Ottomans. Various participants in the war such as Russia and Italy entered into secret treaties, which promised them control over vital territories of the Ottoman Empire. Through these strategies the British were able to obtain support of major powers that opposed Ottoman administration. The Ottomans had to contend not only with the external enemies, but also internal ones such as Armenians and the Arabs, who wanted to establish their own independent nation free of Ottoman control. In spite of these developments, during the initial years of the war, the Ottomans were able to control Dardanelles and Bosphorous – two territories attacked by the Allied forces. (Gilbert)
Attitude of Ottomans towards Armenians had a great impact on the future of the Ottoman Empire after the end of the war as the Armenians with the help of the Allied forces tried to assert their independence from Ottoman authority. Taking the help of compulsory recruitment of able bodied people into the army, large numbers of Armenians were included in the army, and they were sent to the battle field to fight against the Ottoman enemies. This resulted in the death and suffering of many Armenian soldiers. Many Armenians were also taken as unarmed laborers to help the soldiers in order to fight the Allies. Some Armenian leaders contended that Ottoman authority had deliberately sent the Armenians to the battle field in order to kill them. The official policy of Armenian persecution resulted in the decision to send Armenian workers to the battle ground, thereby killing many Armenians.(Zurcher a)

By sending able bodied Armenians to the battle ground, the Ottoman administration ensured that there remained less number of Armenians to protest their exploitation by the Ottoman authorities. Initially, the Ottomans sent Armenians belonging to the age group of 20-45 years to the battle field. However, later when fighting against Russians, fearing that Armenians would collaborate with Russians, many Armenians were disarmed, and they were converted into unarmed laborers, thereby demoting the position of the Armenian soldiers, which affected the relationship between Armenians and the Ottoman administration. (Zurcher a)

The Armenians and Christians comprised majority of the labor battalion that was required to perform functions such as repair works and transportation. Transportation was a major problem for the empire as the road and railway system was not efficient to handle the need for transportation of enormous quantity of goods. By using non Muslims for these activities, the Ottoman administration tried to achieve the two goals of improving transportation and destroying Armenian population who were considered as unsympathetic toward Ottoman authorities. (Zurcher a)

Armenian laborers suffered from lack of medicine and diseases, killing many Armenians in the labor battalions. This was opposed by Armenian leaders as they realized that the Ottoman authorities deliberately tried to destroy the Armenian population belonging to Ottoman Empire. This policy had serious effects on the World War because by the end of the war the Armenians decided to approach the Allies in order to protect their interest. The Greeks and Armenians demanded protection on the basis of the provisions of the peace treaty signed between the Ottoman Empire and the British and other victors, thereby complicating the war situation. (Zurcher a)

Maltreatment of Armenians created sympathy among the Allies for the non Muslim population, and attempt was made to protect their interest by giving them an option of either staying as a part of Ottoman Empire or remain outside the control of Ottoman authorities. Naturally, the non Muslim population demanded freedom from Ottoman control as they did not oppose the control of their territories by the European powers such as the English and the French. (Zurcher a)

A major problem faced by the Ottoman army authorities was the desertion of large numbers of soldiers as they lacked patriotic fervor. This can be particularly seen in the case of Arabs who desired to establish their own independent nation free from Ottoman authority. This resulted in large scale persecution of minorities such as Armenians leading to the massacre of large numbers of Armenian soldiers. Many Armenians were forced to convert to Islamic religion to avoid being deported or being killed by the Ottoman soldiers. This was one option left with the Armenians who decided to use this option in order to save their lives. This shows that the Ottoman administration used its power to punish the people and races that seemed unsympathetic to the Ottoman cause. (Zurcher a)

Despite a few victories to the Ottomans, it was imminent that Ottomans would be finally defeated by the collective force of external and internal enemies. The final defeat of Ottomans also would imply territorial acquisitions by the victors. However, during the initial years the Ottomans were able to defeat the Allied forces in the regions such as Gallipoli. In Mesopotamia, the Ottomans were able to capture nearly 25,000 British and Indian soldiers. (Gilbert)

In spite of few victories, the Ottomans were losing their strength due to revolts by Armenians and Arabs who perceived opposition to Ottoman authority as patriotism. On the other hand, the Allied forces were obtaining upper hand, and the Ottoman military leaders also realized that it was not possible to continue their resistance to the invading British forces. This resulted in the occupation of Damascus by the Allied forces, which forced the Ottomans to seek for peace treaty, as it was realized that Germans were also completely defeated and there was no hope of recovery of German strength against the Allied forces. These details show that Turkey gave resistance to the British and their allies; however, Turks could not continue their resistance for long, and finally they decided to seek peace with the Allies. (Gilbert)

Germany, unlike other European states such as Great Britain and France, claimed to protect the interest of the Ottoman Empire, particularly those of the Muslims who were not represented by other European powers, which were interested in sharing the Ottoman territories among themselves. By 1914, Ottomans had lost most of their territories including Bosnia and Herzegovina and Egypt. The British and the French had already showed their intention to capture the territories belonging to Ottomans. (Stevenson)
Discovery of oil fields in the Ottoman provinces had created a desire among the Europeans to capture these rich regions, which possessed resources essential for industrial development of European countries. While France had established its interest in Morocco, Italy had concentrated on Libya, thereby affecting the Ottoman Empire. (Stevenson)
Above events and politics among the European powers affected the Ottoman decision to enter the First World War as the Ottomans hoped that with the help of the Germans it was possible to fight other European powers, which had showed their intention to attack Ottoman territories. (Stevenson)

During the initial years of First World War, the British found that it was not easy to defeat the Ottomans as the Indian army in Baghdad was defeated by the Ottoman army, which outnumbered the Indian army. The late entrants into the war – Japan and Turkey – had a great impact on the First World War. Japan had decided to enter the war in August, while Turkey decided to participate in the First World War in October 1914. The British attempt to conquer Ottoman Empire through Palestine route failed. Ottomans had ordered for new fleet of ships from British. These ships would have strengthened the Ottoman army when compared to the Russians in the Black Sea region. However, when the British refused to honor the order, the Turks were enraged. (Stevenson)

Most of the Europeans did not believe that Russia should be allowed to capture Ottoman Empire territories as this would have resulted in the conflict between the European powers, leading to the division of Ottoman Empire into numerous divisions. The Europeans wanted to avoid Russian domination in the region, and at the same time they believed that collapse of Ottoman Empire could not be avoided as it was decided to give subject population of Ottoman Empire the option of either remaining within the empire or maintaining independent status, although after the cessation of hostilities this option was not really given to the subjects of the Ottoman Empire, thereby showing the real intention of the European colonial powers. In order to maintain a balance between Russia and Britain, Persia was divided into two spheres of influence to be controlled by the British and the Russians. (Fromkin)

The participation of the Ottoman Empire in the First World War was important because in the Middle East, Turkey was the only nation which preserved its independence, although it was threatened by invasion by the European forces. It is this threat which had forced Turkey to take part in the war. In this way, European powers such as England and France are also responsible for the participation of Ottoman Empire in the First World War. As it is known, Ottomans reluctantly participated in the war, though Ottomans were supported by the Germans. (Fromkin)

The Germans needed the support of Ottomans in the Middle East as there was no way that the Germans could interfere in the region except with the help of the Ottomans. The Ottomans were alienated by the English and the French due to their desire to capture rich Ottoman territories on the one hand, and due to their attempt to curb Russian power in the region on the other. Nevertheless, Ottoman Empire was caught in the political game, and was forced to assert itself by participating in the war. (Fromkin)

Before the beginning of the war, Ottoman Empire had obtained importance among the Muslim nations because majority of Ottoman population belonged to Islamic religion, and most of the Islamic nations respected the authority of Ottoman Empire because Ottoman Sultan was considered as caliph – the foremost religious head of the Muslims. However, by 1914, Ottomans had lost control of administration of provinces situated in the interior regions, giving the impression to foreign observers that Ottoman administration was effective only within the central part of the empire, and not in the peripheries, thereby suggesting that Ottoman Empire had lost most of its glory during this period. (Fromkin)

The greatest advantage of the Ottomans was the fact that the Sultan was respected not for political reasons, but for religious factors. This shows that the Ottomans had already lost their political influence over major portion of the Empire. The timing of the European powers’ aggression on the Ottoman territories was perfect, leading to certain breakdown of the structure of Ottoman administration after the end of the war. (Fromkin)
The European powers showed their interest in capturing Ottoman territories. For example, a new colonial power Italy showed its intention of capturing Ottoman territories. On a flimsy pretext, Italy attacked Turkey in 1911-12 and captured the coast of Libya, which was nominally under the control of the Ottomans. This showed that even if Ottoman Empire wanted to avoid war, it could not do so as it was forced to get involved in war. In the 19th century, the Ottomans were forced, due to poor economic situation of the empire, to obtain monetary assistance from the European powers. In the 20th century, economic situation had further worsened. In such situations, it was important that the Ottoman Empire defended its territory and economy. This analysis shows that historical factors were responsible for the participation of the Ottomans in the First World War. (Fromkin)
Germany had emerged in beginning of 20th century as an important European power. Their rise was proved by the fact that Germans were able to defeat the Russians or challenge the authority of other European powers. This gave the impression that by making alliance with Germany it was possible to achieve the goals of the empire. When the Ottoman authorities were reluctant to support Germans in the political conflict, the Germans exerted great pressure on the Ottomans, leading to the appearance of the Ottomans in the battle ground of World War on the side of the Germans. This clearly indicates that both internal problems and external pressures were responsible for the Ottoman entry into the First World War. (Fromkin)

The entry of Ottomans in war created a new war in the Middle East. The Ottoman presence resulted in changes in the direction of the war in the region, because although Ottomans had lost a substantial portion of its territory, still it was not easy to defeat Ottomans who could potentially possess a huge army. However, unlike Japan, Ottoman Empire was a not a homogenous state; rather it was a state comprised of many ethnic and cultural groups, thereby creating disunity among the subjects. This disunity had given some hope to the British that it was possible to defeat the Ottomans. (Stevenson)

The British entered into secret negotiations with the Arab tribal leaders who were promised of better treatment after the cessation of hostilities. By 1917, the Ottoman economy and military was in bad shape, which showed that it was not possible for the Ottoman army to continue its resistance for longer period. After the Ottomans showed their hatred for the British, the latter decided that Ottoman Empire should not be preserved, contrary to its earlier decision. This shows that during the course of the war Britain was changing its perception concerning the Ottoman administration. (Stevenson)

The British were very much bothered by the presence of Ottoman Empire in the First World War particularly because, unlike Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire was an important power in the region. Ottoman Empire possessed a strong central administration powered by the Young Turk movement resulting in modernization of the army. (Stevenson)

The Ottomans made the life of British difficult in the Middle East region. In the meantime, Ottoman army was losing its strength as by 1918 nearly 500,000 soldiers had deserted the army. Further, Germany was also in a precarious position, which weakened the position of Germany. Consequently, after the Bolshevik revolution Germans entered into a secret agreement with the Bolsheviks that they would not support Ottomans if they attacked Russian capital. This showed that Germans were undermining their friendship with Ottoman Empire due to the emergence of friendly relationship between Germany and Bolshevik Russia. Further, Ottoman army lacked the ability to challenge the Allied forces when they attacked Constantinople as there was only a small contingent to protect the central part of the Ottoman Empire. In the end, when the British did invade Constantinople, Ottomans did not have the ability to protect their territories, leading to the end of war in the Middle East region. Consequently, Ottoman Empire had to agree to sign the peace treaty, which officially ended the war. (Stevenson)


Collapse of Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire's role in First World War came to an end in the month of October, 1918, when the Macedonian and the Palestinian fronts collapsed simultaneously, as the weak Ottoman army divisions were not in a position to continue their resistance to the invading army belonging to the allies. (Zurcher)

Macedonian front was weakened when the whole Bulgarian army revolted and left the battle ground. As a result, Bulgaria was forced to accept the peace treaty imposed on it by the Allied forces. The collapse of Bulgarian front allowed the Allied forces to attack European Turkey including Dardanelles. Now the capital Istanbul could be attacked by the Allies. With a weak military, it was extremely difficult for the Ottomans to continue their resistance against the Allied army. (Zurcher)

There were losses in Palestinian front as well, as the Turkish army was defeated and suffered huge reverses in the battles. These military reverses substantially weakened the army of Ottomans. Another important reason for the collapse of the Ottoman forces was total exhaustion – both military as well as economic- as Ottoman Empire lacked the physical and economic strength to withstand fierce attack by the Allied forces. In the end, the Ottomans realized that they were fighting a lost cause, as it was already known that Germans would not be able to defeat their enemies in the World War.

Basically, the Ottoman Empire was an agricultural state; however, in the end the war turned out to be an industrial affair, demanding modernization of the army and infrastructure, which was simply was not available with the Ottomans. The war, which was unpopular with the public from the very initial stages, created huge problems for soldiers, civilians, and administrators. (Zurcher)

Many soldiers deserted their army, which is indicated by the fact that in the end only 15 percent of originally recruited soldiers remained in the army, while others deserted army during different stages of warfare. This affected the morale of soldiers, and reverses that the army suffered at the hands of the Allied forces further reduced the morale of the army, resulting in demand for the end of the needless war. In the meantime, prices of essential commodities had increased to a great extent as many goods were available only in the black market. (Zurcher)

Another problem that was faced by soldiers and civilian population was that there were many diseases such as cholera, which needed medications. It was very difficult to protect the lives of soldiers and people who suffered from lack of essential commodities and medicine. This created a panic-like situation as the Ottoman Empire suffered from physical, economic, and moral exhaustion. This resulted in emergence of many divisions between various political groups that gave various suggestions in order to obtain relief from the present problem. (Zurcher)

Turkey's decision to participate in war was widely criticized by the people belonging to various sections as Turkey suffered from various problems. The Ottoman army used the primitive mode of travel like bullock carts and primitive roads. Their weapons and infrastructure did not match those of Europeans. This was responsible for the decline of the military power of the Ottomans. (Zurcher)

The Young Turk leadership including Talat Pasha was convinced that it was not possible to obtain victory in the war. The Cabinet, finally, decided to enter into peace agreement with the Allied powers. In order to achieve this, a delegation was sent to the American President, who did not respond to this mission. This compelled the Young Turk cabinet to resign, who were replaced by a new cabinet, which decided to send a prisoner of war called General Townshend who was asked to meet with Admiral Calthrope, the commander of the Mediterranean station of the Royal Army. (Zurcher)

The Turkish mission, while negotiating with Calthrope, tried to obtain the assurance that only English and French forces would be used while occupying the Ottoman provinces. The Ottomans had to accept the occupation of Dardanelles and Bosphorus. The Ottomans were worried about Article 7 and Article 24 of the treaty, as they could be used to occupy any territory belonging to Ottoman Empire. (Zurcher)

Although Calthrope gave personal assurance that only English and French forces would be used to capture Ottoman provinces, he could not assure the Ottomans that Article 7 and Article 24 would be kept as secret. Although the provisions of this treaty can be considered as humiliating to the Turks, it was not as humiliating as the treaty that was signed by the Bulgarian government, which was forced to accept the complete control of victors over Bulgarian territories. Based on this reasoning, the Ottoman government decided to accept this treaty without major changes. (Zurcher)

The above-mentioned treaty had different impact on Greek and Armenian communities because they found an opportunity to establish their independent state free from Ottoman control. Greeks and Armenians always believed they did not belong to Ottoman Empire, and they were demanding better treatment. The Greeks and Armenians suffered at the hands of the Ottoman officials during the course of the war as the Greeks and Armenians refused cooperate with the Ottoman administration. The Greeks and Armenians had looked toward the help of the Allies and when Allied forces did enter Ottoman Empire, the Greeks and Armenians expected that they would be liberated from Ottoman persecution. (Zurcher)

Although the Muslim leaders were not happy with the provisions of this treaty, most of the people were relieved that the war had finally ended. The war was never popular among the people as they believed that there was no need for the participation of Ottomans in this war, although they were considered as the allies of the Germans. The politicians and the people also believed that the British would deliver justice. The people were relieved at the fact that by the end of 1918 still empire survived and the Ottoman government was allowed to function. This gave an opportunity to the Ottoman government to modernize the government and administration. (Zurcher)

People did not panic with the announcement of this peace treaty as it was believed that with the end of hostilities, it was possible to revive Ottoman political and economic power. However, in the end the British could not live up to the expectation of the Ottoman population as the British abused the power given under Article 7 and Article 24 of this treaty. By utilizing these clauses of the treaty, the British and the Allied powers were able to initiate the division of the Ottoman Empire into different parts. This treaty, eventually, resulted in the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and in the emergence of new political changes in the form of growth of new political parties that decided to establish Turkish Republic. (Zurcher)

During the period 1916-1922, the French and the British had participated in intense negotiations concerning the future of Ottoman Empire after the end of the World War. In 1918, the U.S. took up the role of mediator and emphasized the freedom of the subjects of Ottoman Empire, resulting in the division of empire into various self-governing states. However, while dividing the Empire, the subjects of various provinces were not allowed to express their opinion. This shows that the victors took unilateral decision while dividing the Empire into various states. (Laurens)

Even before 1914, Ottoman Arab territories were influenced by the European powers. The intention of Young Turk movement of 1908 was to end the interference of foreigners in the internal affairs of Ottoman administration. This resulted in the emergence of highly centralized and authoritarian rule, which alienated the Arabs, resulting in the Arab movement for independence with the help of the European powers, which were always prepared to support those people who challenged the authority of the Ottomans. (Laurens)

France had established itself in Syria and planned to establish its colony in the region comprising territories such as the modern Lebanon, Syria, and Israel. England was also compelled to accept the French domination of Egypt. This shows that there existed power struggle between the major European powers, which ultimately decided to compromise in order to achieve the single goal of exploiting territories of Ottoman Empire. (Laurens)
The Ottoman administration resisted attempt of the foreigners to interfere in the Ottoman territories such as Egypt and Arabia. Eventually, this forced Ottomans to participate in the First World War with the objective of destroying European power in the region earlier controlled by the Ottomans. (Laurens)

Another aim of the Ottoman administration was to suppress Arab nationalist movement, resulting in repression of the Arabs by the Ottoman authorities, as indicated by hangings and exile in the regions such as Anatolia. (Laurens)
Under the Ottoman administration the Christians and Armenians suffered. As a result, Christians of Mount Lebanon were devastated by famine, while many Armenians and Christians were deported, with a view to establish the domination of Ottoman administration in these regions. (Laurens)

The Ottomans also tried to destroy the military ability of the British and French by calling for jihad, which forced the Europeans – English and French – to take defensive position in the region as they did not want to hurt the religious sentiment of the people. The weapon of jihad was intelligently used by the Ottoman Turks as they expected support from various Muslim nations of Africa and Asia including India. In French North Africa and in British India, the Europeans faced potential threat of the revolt. This forced the Europeans to use a different strategy in order to establish their authority in the region. (Laurens)

The Allies decided to attack Dardanelles in 1915, and an attempt was made to attack Constantinople. This shows that in order to counter the moves of Ottomans, attempt was made by the Europeans to use a different strategy. The British also encouraged the Arabs like Bedouin people that if they revolted against the Turks, they would be given independence after the end of the war. Sir Henry McMohan, Britain's high commissioner to Egypt urged Sharif Hussein to revolt against the Turks. The Arabs were promised benevolent British rule and later independence. The French also tried to establish their control over the Syrian region. (Laurens)

The above details show that Ottoman participation in the First World War, resulted in various political developments, and this resulted in significant impact on the result of the First World War. The participation of Ottomans in the war forced the British and French to reduce the power of the Ottomans. The European powers realized that it was important to divide the Ottoman Empire among them in order to continue their domination in the region.

The British and the French decided to draw a boundary line between British Arabia and French Syria. In May 1916, Georges Picot of France and Mark Sykes of Britain decided to sign a treaty, which decided the division of Ottoman Empire into two regions. The British accepted that French could control the region from Syrian coast to Anatolia, while the French accepted the English control over Basra and Palestinian territory around Haifa. It was also decided to keep the remaining provinces under the joint control of the British and the French. However, the American entry into the First World War as the associate of the Allies changed the picture. (Laurens)

The American president Woodrow Wilson asserted the principle of self-determination. However, eventually it was decided to establish the power of English and French on the Middle Eastern territories based on mandate given by League of Nations. In the Paris Peace Treaty, the British and French decided to share the Ottoman territories by dividing them into two mandates – one under the control of English and the other under the control of the French. This resulted in the division of the Ottoman Empire, and this had negative impact on the future of Ottoman Empire. (Laurens)

Due to division of Empire and the emergence of nationalist movement in Arabia, the Ottomans could not control Arabia and Syria. Consequently, there was official destruction of the Ottoman Empire after the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty. Although Arabs and others were promised of independent state, this promise was not honored by the Europeans as they asserted that the subjects of Ottomans did not possess the ability to rule themselves. This resulted in virtual control of the colonial powers over Middle Eastern regions that were once under the rule of the Turkish Empire. (Laurens)

The above details indicate that there were various discussions and developments leading to eventual decision to divide the Ottoman Empire among the Allies. In order to disintegrate the Ottoman Empire, there was need for negotiation between the British and the French, which resulted in the Sykes-Picot agreement. In spite of this agreement, the British leaders such as Lloyd George and others were not inclined to break up the Ottoman Empire, as preservation of the empire was necessary in order to achieve the goals of the English in the Middle East, particularly in the region of Egypt, which had become bone of contention between the English and the French. (Goemans)

By keeping the Ottoman Empire intact, the English could improve their position in Egypt, as the French had already asserted their domination over this region. The leaders discussed concerning the future of Ottoman Empire in the de Bunsen committee, which finally agreed to keep the empire intact. Lloyd George also supported this position of the committee. It was decided to provide very favorable terms to the war cabinet of Turkey. The members in this committee suggested that Turkey should be given loan for reconstruction of its infrastructure and buildings, which were devastated in the war; the regions such as Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia would be under nominal Ottoman suzerainty. In return, the British and the French demanded same benevolence from the Turkish government for their projects in the Middle East. (Goemans)

The British and the French had ambition of exploiting oil resources of the region. It was decided to make Persia as the British sphere of influence. It was also decided to give full security to all nations – both big and small. The major powers assured that Italians, Slavs, Romanians, and Czechoslovaks would be given freedom from foreign domination. The major powers decided to expel Ottoman Empire from Europe and to enfranchise the subjects of the empire so that they would be able to assert their rights. (Goemans)

The French asserted their right to administer the Ottoman territories in the western part of the empire. These territories were already occupied by the Allied forces.

Austria-Hungary and Ottoman governments had appealed to the victors to protect their interest instead of exploiting their resources. These details indicate that the Ottomans feared that the British and the French would initiate dissolution of the empire. The British under Lloyd George believed that they had obtained diplomatic victory over the French who could not stop the British from obtaining greater share of the Ottoman territories and resources. (Goemans)

The attempts of the victors to share the war spoils resulted in weakening of the Ottoman state structure. With the division and sharing of Ottoman territories, there remained practically only a small territorial region that was controlled by the Ottoman administration. This finally resulted in the complete destruction of Ottoman Empire. Particularly, Britain by the end of the war, realized that it can impose its terms on the Ottoman Empire. By the closing years of war, Britain did not hesitate to exploit the situation for their advantage, and succeeded in squeezing the Ottomans of their territories and resources. (Goemans)


Conclusion

The Ottoman participation in the First World War adversely affected the outcome of the war. The ottoman participation in the war increased the intensity of the war, particularly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, as Ottoman Empire was considered as a significant power in the Middle East. The Ottoman decision to enter the war prolonged the war, although finally the Ottomans realized that it was not possible to obtain victory. This also resulted in the collapse of the Empire after the cessation of hostilities.

The Ottomans were forced to participate in the war due to the policy of the European powers, particularly English and the French, towards the Ottoman territories. The major European powers – England, France, and Russia – had clearly expressed their desire to capture important territories of the Ottoman Empire. Various wars that were fought during the 19th century and beginning of 20th century had showed that major European powers planned to reduce the size of the empire.

Initially, the plan of the British was not to destroy the Ottoman Empire because preservation of empire was necessary in order to counter the ambitions of the French and the Russians. When the Ottomans openly expressed their hostility towards the British and friendship towards Germans, the British decided to dismantle the empire. This aim was achieved after the cessation of hostilities. The Ottoman participation in the war also resulted in the harassment – in the form of massacre – of the Armenians, leading to emergence of demand for self-rule by the groups such as Armenians and Arabs. These groups, particularly the Arabs, revolted against the Ottomans to establish their own nation, as promised to them by the British. The participation of Ottomans resulted in the killing of large numbers of people in the Middle East. Finally, when the war ended with the peace of Paris, it was decided to divide the empire into different parts among the European colonial powers in the form of protectorates, resulting in the decline and collapse of the Ottoman Empire. With the destruction of the Ottoman Empire, the Caliphate was also destroyed. These details clearly indicate that Ottoman Empire’s role was significant in the First World War, leading to a few serious developments.






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Posted by: Julia Vann

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